VETERINARY MEDICINE

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    ABSORPTION, DISTRIBUTION, AND EXCRETION OF IMIDOCARB DIPROPIONATE (3,3'-bis-(2-imidazolin-2-yl) carbanilide) IN SHEEP
    (1974-08) YUSUF, OTARU ALIU
    ABSORPTION, DISTRIBUTION, AND EXCRETION OF IMIDOCARB DIPROPIONATE (3,3'-bis-(2-imidazolin-2-yl) carbanilide) IN SHEEP. (August 1974) Yusuf Otaru Aliu, D.V.M., Cornell University. Spectrophotometric and thin-layer chromatographic methods for quantitative and qualitative determination of imidocarb in biologic specimens are described. Imidocarb was extracted under basic conditions from plasma, urine, milk, bile and homogenized tissue samples into organic solvents. Following extraction and concentration in 0.82 N HCl, the drug can be qualitatively identified by thin-layer chromatography and spectrophotometry. The detection limit for estimation of pure imidocarb in aqueous solution by spectrophotometry is equivalent to a concentration of 1.0 μg/ml in plasma and other body fluids and 5.0 μg/Gm in tissues. With thin-layer chromatography, the minimum detection level is 0.21 μg. Following intravenous injection of imidocarb dipropionate (2.0 mg/kg of body weight) into sheep, the high initial plasma concentration of 10.8 μg/ml fell very rapidly to 1.9 μg/ml in 1 hour, and was less than 1 μg/ml in 4 hours post injection. When 4.5 mg/kg of body weight of imidocarb was injected intramuscularly into sheep, peak plasma concentrations of 7.9 μg/ml were attained within 4 hours. This was followed by a rapid decline within the next 2 hours to 4.6 μg/ml, and then by a very slow decline of several weeks duration. Trace amounts were still present in the plasma 4 weeks after treatment. The drug was bound to plasma proteins to the extent of 21-53%, and the apparent volume of distribution was slightly higher than the total body water. Imidocarb was widely distributed in the tissues of sheep. Concentrations in the tissues studied were considered high and detectable amounts were present 4 weeks after administration. Twenty-four hours after administration, the highest concentrations occurred in the kidneys, liver and brain. Using 14C-labelled imidocarb to study its distribution in the brain, significant radioactivity was detected in all regions with highest concentrations occurring in the pituitary gland, the pineal body and the olfactory bulb. The concentrations of radioactivity measured in plasma (0.013 μg/ml) and sheep red blood cells (0.016 μg/ml) indicated an equal partitioning between plasma and red blood cells. No metabolic or biotransformation products could be detected by the methods of assay. Approximately 11-17% of the administered dose was excreted in the urine within 24 hours; thereafter, the excretion rate was very low and detectable amounts were present for 4 weeks. The rate of renal clearance of imidocarb was found to be considerably below glomerular filtration rate indicative of tubular reabsorption. The relatively high concentrations of the drug found in the bile suggest that biliary excretion of imidocarb is an important route of excretion. High concentrations were also found in the milk of lactating ewes. When the milk was fed to nursing lambs, no drug could be detected in their plasma. Imidocarb did not affect oxidative phosphorylation of isolated rat liver mitochondria.
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    AMELIORATIVE EFFECT OF BORRERIA VERTICILLATA AQUEOUS EXTRACT ON PATHOLOGY INDUCED BY ADENIUM OBESUM AQUEOUS EXTRACT IN JUVENILE CLARIAS GARIEPINUS (BURCHELL 1822)
    (2018-10) MUYIWA, BENEDICT OLUROTIMI
    The study was conducted to determine the effect of aqueous extract of Borreria verticillata aerial part (BVE) on Clarias gariepinus juveniles exposed to Adenium obesum stem bark (AOE).The study consisted of ten (10) groups each of fifteen (15) fish per group. Group one,G1(CONTROL),had no extract treatment, G2 (25mg/L, BVE), G3 (50mg/L, BVE), G4 (100mg/L, BVE), G5 (200mg/L, BVE), G6 (0.838 mg/L AOE), G7 (25mg/L BVE + 0.838mg/L AOE ), G8 (50mg/L BVE+0.838mg/L AOE), G9 (100mg/L BVE+0.838mg/L) and G10 (200mg/L BVE + 0.838mg/L). The haematological parameters, oxidative stress markers and tissue changes were determined for the ten groups. The phytochemical screening of both aqueous extracts of Borreria verticillata (BVE) and Adenium obesum (AOE) revealed the presence of glycoside, saponin, steroids, triterpenes, tannins, flavonoid and alkaloids in varying quantities, while cardiac glycoside was found in Adenium obesum only. The LC50 of aqueous extract Adenium obesum stem bark was established as 8.38mg/l in this study. The red blood cell (RBC) counts and erythrocytic indices as well as the serum total protein in G6 decreased significantly (P<0.05) compared to groups1-5. The total white blood cell count, differential white blood cell count, serum amino transaminases, serum malondialdehyde, serum reduced glutathione and serum super oxide dismutase increased significantly (P<0.05) in G6 with increase in days of exposure to 0.838mg/L of AOE. These values decreased significantly (P<0.05) in groups 7-10 during the period compared to group 6 in a concentration and time dependent manner. Histology of gill, liver, intestine and kidney showed no changes in Groups 1 – 5. In Group 6, there were complete fusion of secondary lamella, club-shaped primary lamella, congested branchial blood vessels complete fusion of secondary lamella, club-shaped primary lamella, congested brachial blood vessels and vacuolated primary lamella. The liver showed, congested centrmulti-focal vacuolation, mononuclear cell infiltration, and presence of melanomacrophage centres. The intestines had hyperplasia of goblet cells. Aggregates of mononuclear cells, tubular degeneration, hypertrophied glomerulus, congestion and perivascular fibrosis were seen in kidneys. Alterations noticed in groups 7-10 on days 14 and 28 include one-sided fusion of the secondary lamella in the gills, some of which were atrophied or hypertrophied. The liver showed congested blood vessels and vacuolation, while the intestine had hyperplasia of goblet cells, hypertrophy of lamina propria and the muscularis mucosa. There were dilated tubules and hypertrophied glomerulus. There was no clear cut distinction between the intestinal lesions seen in G6 compared to G7-10 on days 14-28. Based on the haemato-biochemical and histopathological findings in this study, it was concluded that the aqueous extract of Borreria verticillata has an ameliorative effect on the pathology induced by the aqueous extract of Adenium obesum stem bark extract in Clarias gariepinus, (Burchell, 1822).
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    AMELIORATIVE EFFECT OF BORRERIA VERTICILLATA AQUEOUS EXTRACT ON PATHOLOGY INDUCED BY ADENIUM OBESUM AQUEOUS EXTRACT IN JUVENILE CLARIAS GARIEPINUS (BURCHELL 1822)
    (2018-10) MUYIWA, Benedict Olurotimi
    The study was conducted to determine the effect of aqueous extract of Borreria verticillata aerial part (BVE) on Clarias gariepinus juveniles exposed to Adenium obesum stem bark (AOE).The study consisted of ten (10) groups each of fifteen (15) fish per group. Group one,G1(CONTROL),had no extract treatment, G2 (25mg/L, BVE), G3 (50mg/L, BVE), G4 (100mg/L, BVE), G5 (200mg/L, BVE), G6 (0.838 mg/L AOE), G7 (25mg/L BVE + 0.838mg/L AOE ), G8 (50mg/L BVE+0.838mg/L AOE), G9 (100mg/L BVE+0.838mg/L) and G10 (200mg/L BVE + 0.838mg/L). The haematological parameters, oxidative stress markers and tissue changes were determined for the ten groups. The phytochemical screening of both aqueous extracts of Borreria verticillata (BVE) and Adenium obesum (AOE) revealed the presence of glycoside, saponin, steroids, triterpenes, tannins, flavonoid and alkaloids in varying quantities, while cardiac glycoside was found in Adenium obesum only. The LC50 of aqueous extract Adenium obesum stem bark was established as 8.38mg/l in this study. The red blood cell (RBC) counts and erythrocytic indices as well as the serum total protein in G6 decreased significantly (P<0.05) compared to groups1-5. The total white blood cell count, differential white blood cell count, serum amino transaminases, serum malondialdehyde, serum reduced glutathione and serum super oxide dismutase increased significantly (P<0.05) in G6 with increase in days of exposure to 0.838mg/L of AOE. These values decreased significantly (P<0.05) in groups 7-10 during the period compared to group 6 in a concentration and time dependent manner. Histology of gill, liver, intestine and kidney showed no changes in Groups 1 – 5. In Group 6, there were complete fusion of secondary lamella, club-shaped primary lamella, congested branchial blood vessels complete fusion of secondary lamella, club-shaped primary lamella, congested brachial blood vessels and vacuolated primary lamella. The liver showed, congested centrmulti-focal vacuolation, mononuclear cell infiltration, and presence of melanomacrophage centres. The intestines had hyperplasia of goblet cells. Aggregates of mononuclear cells, tubular degeneration, hypertrophied glomerulus, congestion and perivascular fibrosis were seen in kidneys. Alterations noticed in groups 7-10 on days 14 and 28 include one-sided fusion of the secondary lamella in the gills, some of which were atrophied or hypertrophied. The liver showed congested blood vessels and vacuolation, while the intestine had hyperplasia of goblet cells, hypertrophy of lamina propria and the muscularis mucosa. There were dilated tubules and hypertrophied glomerulus. There was no clear cut distinction between the intestinal lesions seen in G6 compared to G7-10 on days 14-28. Based on the haemato-biochemical and histopathological findings in this study, it was concluded that the aqueous extract of Borreria verticillata has an ameliorative effect on the pathology induced by the aqueous extract of Adenium obesum stem bark extract in Clarias gariepinus, (Burchell, 1822).
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    AMELIORATIVE EFFECTS OF KAEMPFEROL AND ZINC GLUCONATE ON HAEMATOLOGICAL, NEUROBEHAVIOURAL AND OXIDATIVE STRESS CHANGES IN WISTAR RATS EXPOSED TO NOISE STRESS
    (2017-07) AKEFE, ISAAC OLUWATOBI
    The aim of the study was to investigate effects of kaempferol and zinc gluconate administration on haematological, neurobehavioural and oxidative stress changes in Wistar rats, exposed to noise stress. Thirty (30) rats were randomly divided into five groups: Groups I and II were administered with deionised water; Group III, kaempferol; Group IV, zinc gluconate; Group V, kaempferol + zinc gluconate for 36 days. Groups II, III, IV and V were subjected to noise stress of 100 dB dose for 15 days from day 22 to day 36. Behavioural activities were assessed on days 1, 8 and 15 after noise exposure. The effects of the different treatments on body weight change, open-field activities, neuromuscular coordination, motor strength, excitability scores, sensorimotor reflexes and learning and memory were assessed in the rats. Packed cell volume, haemoglobin concentration, total erythrocyte count, erythrocytic indices, platelet count neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio, total and differential leucocyte counts and erythrocyte osmotic fragility (EOF) test were determined using standard methods. The brain was used to evaluate noise stress-induced lipoperoxidative changes, through determination of brain malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration and activities of antioxidant enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase, using kits. The results of this study showed that noise stress-induced decrease in body weight gain was significantly (P < 0.05) ameliorated in the group treated with kaempferol + zinc (123.70 ± 0.99 g, 133.70 ± 1.59 g) than in the group treated with deionised water + noise (117.70 ± 1.02 g, 125.70 ± 1.20 g). There was a significant and consistent decrease in the EOF of rats treated with kaempferol + zinc. Kaempferol + zinc gluconate significantly (P < 0.05) ameliorated decrease in haemoglobin concentration (from 12.62 ± 0.12 to 14.32 ± 0.11 g/dL), packed cell volume (from 37.85 ± 0.35 to 43.47 ± 0.30 %) and erythrocyte counts (from 6.43 ± 0.04 to 7.20 ± 0.06× 1012/L). Values of mean corpuscular haemoglobin (20.40 ± 0.33 ρg) and mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (33.20 ± 0.15%) were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in kaempferol + zinc treated rat compared to the deionized water + noise treated group (18.43 ± 0.34) and (29.65 ± 0.89) respectively. Rats treated with zinc had the highest mean corpuscular volume (61.35 ± 0.67 fL) compared to the deionized water + noise treated group (58.87 ± 0.29). Platelet counts were also significantly higher (P < 0.05) in rats treated with kaempferol + zinc (609.20 ± 6.90 x 106 g/dL) compared to the group treated with noise + deionised water (439.80 ± 7.91 x 106 g/dL). Administration of kaempferol + zinc caused leucocytosis due to neutrophilia and lymphocytosis as well as a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in N:L ratio (0.25 ± 0.01) than in the group treated with deionised water + noise (0.35 ± 0.03). Combination kaempferol + zinc significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced learning (from 2.33 ± 0.33 s to 1.17 ± 0.17) and memory (from 92.17 ± 4.08 s to 106.80 ± 2.14 s). Kaempferol + zinc significantly (P < 0.05) mitigated noise stress induced impairment in neuromuscular coordination neuromuscular coordination (from 45.0 ± 1.43o to 65.06 ± 1.23o), motor strength (from 51.68 ±229 s 78.33 ± 5.69 s), sensory motor reflex (from 2.88 ± 0.16 to 4.83 ± 0.17), and motor coordination on days 1, 8 and 15 (from 10.83 ± 1.40 cm, 11.5 ± 1.18 cm, 10.50 ± 0.923 cm to 5.33 ± 1.45 cm, 4.33 ± 1.41 cm and 4.83 ± 1.35 cm) respectively. Kaempferol + zinc exerted anxiolytic effects, demonstrated in treated rats subjected to open-field test. In addition, combined treatment significantly (P < 0.05) decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration (from 1.10 ± 0.20 nmol/mg to 0.70 ± 0.20 nmol/mg) and enhanced activities of antioxidant enzymes: catalase (from 32.50 ± 2.20 IU/L to 36.90 ± 2.00 IU/L), glutathione peroxidase (from 25.10 ± 1.10 IU/L to 29.40 ± 1.20 IU/L) and superoxide dismutase (from 1.80 ± 0.20 IU/L to 2.20 ± 0.30 IU/L). In conclusion, treatment with kaempferol and zinc singly and in combination ameliorated noise-induced haematological, neurobehavioural and oxidative stress changes in Wistar rats.
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    AMELIORATIVE EFFECTS OF L-GLUTAMINE ON RECTAL TEMPERATURE, HAEMATOLOGICAL AND OXIDATIVE STRESS CHANGES IN RED SOKOTO GOATS DURING THE HOT-DRY SEASON
    (2015-11) OCHEJA, OHIEMI BENJAMIN
    The experiment was conducted with the aim of determining the ameliorative effects of L-glutamine administration on rectal temperature, haematological and oxidative stress changes in Red Sokoto goats during the hot-dry season. Twenty eight apparently healthy adult Red Sokoto goats of about 1-year-old, comprising 14 bucks (7 experimental and 7 control) and 14 non-pregnant does (7 experimental and 7 control) served as subject of the study. Goats in the experimental group were administered Lglutamine at 0.2 g/kg body weight per os once daily, while those in the control group were given distilled water for 21 days. Rectal temperature and, blood samples for haematological and biochemical analyses, were obtained 3 days before, during and on day 7 after L-glutamine administration. The thermal environmental variables of drybulb temperature, relative humidity, and temperature-humidity index during the study period had range values of 24.5 - 35.2 °C, 41.7 - 84.0 % and 74.1 - 84.0, respectively. The mean rectal temperature of 38.78 ± 0.06 °C recorded in experimental group was lower than the corresponding value of 38.93 ± 0.06 °C recorded in control group, during the period L-glutamine administration. The packed cell volume, haemoglobin concentration, erythrocyte count, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular haemoglobin, mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration, and total leucocyte, neutrophil and lymphocyte counts, and neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio were higher (P < 0.05) in experimental group as compared to the control group. Erythrocyte osmotic fragility in experimental group was lower (P < 0.05) than in the control group only at 0.5 and 0.7 % during the period of L-glutamine administration. The MDA concentration in the experimental group (1.47 ± 0.1 nmol/L) was lower (P < 0.05) than the corresponding value of 1.75 ± 0.1 nmol/L recorded in the control group, during Lglutamine administration. In the experimental group, SOD activity (2.29 ± 0.04 IU/L) was higher (P < 0.05) than that obtained in the control group (2.10 ± 0.04 IU/L) during L-glutamine administration. The glutathione peroxidase activities was higher (P < 0.05) in experimental than the control goats during L-glutamine administration. Catalase activity recorded in the experimental goats (48.96 ± 0.9 IU/L) was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that obtained in control goats (44.04 ± 0.9 IU/L) during the period of L-glutamine administration. In conclusion, L-glutamine ameliorated the heat stressinduced changes in rectal temperature, haematological and oxidative stress parameters of Red Sokoto goats during the hot-dry season.
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    AMELIORATIVE EFFECTS OF MELATONIN ON SUBACUTE CHLORPYRIFOS-INDUCED REPRODUCTIVE TOXICITY IN MALE WISTAR RATS
    (2010-11) UMOSEN, ANGELA JECINTA AMA
    Studies were conducted to determine the effect of subacute chlorpyrifos exposure on semen characteristics and hormonal, biochemical and pathological changes and the ameliorative effects of melatonin in male rats. Fourty adult male Wistar rats divided into 4 groups of 10 animals each were used for this study. Rats in group I (S/oil) served as passive control and received the soya oil (2 ml/kg). Rats in group II (Mel) (active control) were administered with melatonin (0.5 mg/kg), while those in group III (CPF) were exposed to CPF only (8.5 mg/kg ~ 1/10th of the LD50). Rats in group IV (Mel + CPF) were pretreated with melatonin (0.5 mg/kg) and then exposed to CPF (8.5 mg/kg), 10 minutes later. The regimens were administered orally by gavage once daily for a period of 28 days. During this period, the rats were observed for signs of toxicity and death. At the end of the study period, the rats were sacrificed, and sera obtained from the blood samples of the animals were analyzed for testosterone, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). Testicular tissues and pituitary glands were assayed for the levels of malonaldehyde (MDA), catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Testicular weight, epididymal sperm count and semen characteristics were also evaluated. The sections of the brain, testes, adrenal glands, liver and kidneys were examined for histopathological changes. The results showed that pretreatment with melatonin ameliorated the CPF induced alterations in toxic signs, epididymal sperm count, semen characteristics, testicular weight, histopathological changes and levels of testosterone, FSH, LH, T3, T4, TSH, MDA, AChE, CAT and SOD. In conclusion, subacute CPF-induced alterations in sex hormones and semen characteristics were ameliorated by melatonin due to its antioxidant and AChE restoration properties. Therefore, it is conceivable that farmers, pesticide applicators and individuals who are repeatedly exposed to low-dose CPF and perhaps, other organophosphates may be protected from the pesticide-evoked reproductive toxicity by pretreatment with melatonin.
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    AMELIORATIVE EFFECTS OF VITAMIN C ON NEUROBEHAVIOURAL, HAEMATOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES INDUCED BY SUBACUTE CO-ADMINISTRATION OF CHLORPYRIFOS AND CYPERMETHRIN IN WISTAR RATS.
    (2011-07) AKANBI, DAYO OLUFEMI
    Experiments were performed with the aim of evaluating the effects of vitamin C on neurobehavioural, haematological and biochemical changes induced by repeated subacute coadministration of chlorpyrifos (CPF) and cypermethrin (CYP) in Wistar rats. Forty adult Wistar rats were divided into 4 groups of 10 rats (5 males and 5 females) each. The rats in group I (control) were administered with soya oil (2 ml/kg), while those in group II were given vitamin C (100 mg/kg) only. Rats in group III were co-administered with CPF (5.3 mg/kg) and CYP (14.1 mg/kg) (~ 1/16th of their LD50), while those in group IV were pretreated with vitamin C (100 mg/kg) followed by the administration of CPF (5.3 mg/kg) + CYP (14.1 mg/kg) 30 minutes later. These regimens were given orally by gavage once daily for a period of 28 days. The effects of the different treatments on body weight change, motor activity, anxiety, neuromuscular coordination, learning and short-term memory were evaluated in the rats at various times during the study period. Haematological parameters such as packed cell volume, haemoglobin concentration, total erythrocyte count, total and absolute differential leucocyte count, thrombocyte count and erythrocyte osmotic fragility were determined using standard methods. Sera obtained from another set of blood samples were evaluated for the concentrations of total protein, albumin, globulin, creatinine, urea, uric acid and glucose using standard methods. In addition, the activities of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), lactic acid dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase (CK) were evaluated in the sera samples. Lipid peroxidation was determined by measuring for the thiobarbituric acid reactive substance; malondialdehyde (MDA) in the brain and liver of the rats. The results demonstrated that subacute co-exposure to chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin caused an appreciable percentage decline in body weight gain although the changes were not significant (P > 0.05). The CPF+CYP group demonstrated an increase in anxiety, sensorimotor reflex and brain malondialdehyde concentration when compared to the control and vitamin C pretreated groups. It also recorded a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in neuromuscular coordination, and learning and memory indices as compared to the control and vitamin C pre-treated groups. Rats in the CPF+CYP group were observed to have a relative decline in packed cell volume, haemoglobin concentration, total erythrocyte and thrombocyte counts when compared to the S/oil and vitamin C pretreated groups. Rats exposed to CPF+CYP recorded a relatively higher erythrocyte osmotic fragility and total leucocyte count than rats in the control and VC groups. Serum AST, ALP, LDH and CK values for the CPF+CYP group were relatively higher (although not significant; P > 0.05) than the S/oil and VC groups. The serum concentrations of creatinine and urea were increased while the serum concentrations of glucose, uric acid and albumin were decreased by CPF+CYP when compared with control and VC groups. In conclusion, the study has shown that pretreatment with vitamin C mitigates the alterations in neurobehavioural, haematological and biochemical parameters induced by co-administration of CPF and CYP.
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    THE AMELIORATIVE EFFECTS OF VITAMINS C AND E ON NEUROTOXIC, HAEMATOLOGIC AND BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES INDUCED BY CHRONIC CHLORPYRIFOS IN ADULT WISTAR RATS
    (2009-02) AMBALI, SULEIMAN FOLORUNSHO
    Experiments were performed with the aim of evaluating the effect of chronic exposure to chlorpyrifos (CPF) on neurotoxieological, clinicopathological, haematologieal and biochemical changes, and the effect of antioxidant vitamins C and/or E on these changes in Wistar rats. Fifty adult Wistar rats divided into 5 groups of 10 animals each (5 males and 5 females in each group) served as subjects for this study. Rats in group I were given soya oil (S/oil) only at a dose of 2ml/kg daily. Rats in group II (CPF only) were exposed to CPF only at 10.6 mg/kg (l/8th of LD50), while those in group 111 were pretreated with vitamin C at a dose of 100 mg/kg before exposure to CPF (10.6 mg/kg) (VC+CPF) 30 minutes later. Rats in group IV were pretreated with vitamin E at a dose of 75 mg/kg before being administered with CPF (10.6 mg/kg) (VEiCPF) 30 minutes later, while those in group V were pretreated with a combination of vitamins C+E followed by exposure to CPF (10.6 mg/kg) (VC+VE+CPF) 30 minutes later. The regimens were orally administered to each animal in all the groups once daily for 17 weeks. During this period, the rats were examined for clinical signs, weekly body weight changes and death. The effect of the different regimens on motor activity, anxiety, habituation learning, sensorimotor reflex, motor strength, learning and memory were assessed using appropriate ncurobehavioural asessment protocols. At the end of the study period, the rats in each group were sacrificed for haematologieal, serum biochemical and tissue pathological examinations. The haematologieal parameters analysed were packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin (lib) concentration, red blood cell (RBC) count, absolute and differential white blood cell (WBC) count, and in-vitro erthrocyte osmotic fragility. The scrum biochemical parameters analysed included aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (AFP), y-glutamyl transferase (GGT), creatine kinase (CK), Na1, K', CI" and HCO3 Other parameters evaluated included total proteins albumin, globulin, urea, uric acid, creatinine. glucose, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), triglycerides (TG), cholesterol (TC), high density lipoprotein-cholestcrol (HDL-c) and lowdensity lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-c). Gross examination of tissues and organs were carried out, while histopathological examinations on sections of the brain, liver, stomach, intestine, pancreas, kidneys, lungs and spleen were evaluated. In addition, the effect of the regimen on lipid peroxidation was analysed by evaluating the concentration of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), malonaldehyde (MDA) in the liver, brain and the serum. The results showed that rats exposed to CPF only manifested toxic signs, reduce body weight gain, increased anxiety; caused impairment of motor activity, coordinated gait, neuromuscular coordination, motor strength, sensorimotor reflex, learning and memory. Pretreatment with vitamins C and/or E ameliorated the CPF-induccd neurobchavioural and cognitive changes. Exposure to CPF resulted in reduction in the values of PCV, RBC, Hb and WBC, uric acid, IP, albumin, CK, TSH, T3, T4,TC, TG and IIDL-c. Exposure to CPF also caused increased erythrocyte osmotic fragility, globulin, glucose, creatinine, AST, ALT, AEP, GGT, LDL-c, serum and tissue MDA. No difference in the electrolytes level was observed in all the groups. Pretreatment with vitamins C and E but not the combination of both vitamins caused further increase in LDL-c. On the whole, pretreatment with vitamin C and/or E ameliorated CPF-induced haematological and biochemical changes. Severe degenerative changes involving neuronal and glial cells of the cerebrum, hepatocytes, myocardial cells, glomeruli and renal tubules, glandular and non-glandular portion of the stomach, intestinal villi, submucosal and muscular layer of the intestine; pancreas and spleen were observed in rats exposed to CPF only. Pretreatment with antioxidant vitamins C and/or E generally resulted in milder pathological lesions in the organs compared to those exposed to CPF only. The study has shown that chronic exposure to CPF induces clinicopathological, neurobchavioural, cognitive, haematological and serum biochemical changes in Wistar rats, and that pretreatment with antioxidant vitamins C and/or E ameliorated the changes. The study has further shown that induction of increased lipid per-oxidation by chronic CPF exposure plays an important role in the molecular mechanisms of these changes.
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    AN ANATOMICAL STUDY OF THE LYMPHOID ORGANS OF THE GUINEA FOWL (NUMIDA MELEAGRIS GALEATA) AT EMBRYONIC AND POSTHATCHING PERIODS
    (1997) ONYEANUSI, Barth Zuchukwu
    Guinea fowl lymphoid tissues (the thymus,Bursa of Fabricius, Harderian gland and the spleen) were examined at embryonic and post-hatching periods to observe the gross and histologic features and their growth rate in relation to the age of birds. Whole embryos from day three to day 17 were wax-embedded, serially sectioned at 5.0m, stained with Hematoxylin and Eosin and observed for histological details using light microscope. Individual lymphoid tissues obtained by dissecting embryos from day 18 to day of hatching and from guinea fowls from day one post-hatch till 32 weeks of age were epon embedded. Thick sections (0.5 - 1.0m)and thin sections (0.05 - 0.2m) were observed using light and electron-microscopy respectively. A total of 100 birds, in groups of five, were euthenized and their lymphoid tissues used for the study of the growth rate in relation to the age of the birds. Five adult birds at the age of 20 weeks post-hatch were used to study the gross features of the tissues. Gross Anatomy The thymus was grossly observed to contain a total of 13 lobes with seven lobes on the right side and six lobes on the left side of the neck. The third and the sixth lobes were the largest. The bursa of Fabricius was an oval blind sac with a short stalk from its point of origin. Each gland contained 12 to 14 primary folds or plicae internally. The Harderian gland was a bright pink organ with slight constriction about its midpoint and had an irregular outline. It had a mean length of 15.0±0.8 mm and a width of 6.0±0.4 mm at the broader end. The spleen was a smooth bean-shaped structure with a on the ventral surface which formed the entry and exit of its vessels. The organ was covered by a thin but tough capsule except at the hilus. Three short arteries entered the splenic substance at its ventral surface. Morphometric Values It is observed that the thymus, bursa,Harderian gland and spleen had minimal mean weights at day one post hatch. The maximal mean weights were around 18 - 20 weeks post-hatch except Harderian gland which had its maximum at 32 weeks. The bursa and thymus had minimal relative weights at 32 weeks while the Harderian gland and spleen had theirs around 24 - 26 weeks. The bursa, spleen and thymus had their maximal relative weights at four weeks while Harderian gland had maximal relative weight at 10 weeks. Fig.l revealed a significant decrease in weight and the commencement of involution of the thymus after 20 weeks and of bursa after 18 weeks. Harderian gland and spleen had continous growth throughout the study. Histology Thymus The thymus was first observed on day seven of incubation as a collection of reticular cells and large lymphocytes. Individual red blood cells were seen together with the reticular and lymphoid cells on day 10 and these red blood cells had appeared in groups on day 12. Small lymphocytes and the begging of capsular formation were observed on day 14. By day 16, few blood vessels were seen in the interlobular spaces. By day 18, thymic corpuscles appeared within the gland and there was presence of tiny vacuoles within the reticular cells. Macrophages were first observed on day 20, the cortex and medulla became distinguishable by day 21. On day 24, thymic corpuscles contained few debris at central region. Distribution of blood vessels was uniform between the cortex and medulla at five days post-hatch while plasma cells appeared in the gland at three weeks post-hatch. Bursa The bursa was observed day eight of incubation and bounded by two layers of epithelial cells. Blood capillaries and few lymphocytes appeared in the mesenchyma on day 12. Vacuoles were also observed in the epithelial cells. Capsule, plicae"and epithelial buds had formed on day 18 and macrophages were observed on day 20. Blood vessels had occurred in the cortex and goblet cells were observed on day 21 while plasma cells were seen on day 22. On day one posthatch surface epithelium was pseudostratified. Harderian gland Harderian gland, bounded by epithelial and mesenchymal cells, was observed on day 10 of incubation. Blood vessels and red blood cells were seen on day 12 while large lymphocytes appeared on day 13. The capsule appeared on day 14 while small granules were seen in the lymphocytes on day 16. Tiny vacuoles appeared in the epithelial cells on day 18, and tubulo-acinar formation and small tubular ducts were also seen on this day. By day 19,pseudostratification of epithelium was observed. Acinar cells were filled with secretory materials on day 24. At eight weeks, squamosis of epithelial cells was evident. Spleen This organ was observed on day seven of incubation as a bean-shaped structure comprising of reticular cells and large lymphocytes. Red blood cells were noticed in addition on day eight. Sinusoids appeared on day nine while capsular formation was seen on day 10. Small lymphocytes, macrophages and small blood vessels were observed on day 11. By day 16, granulocytes had appeared. Red and white pulps were distinguishable on day 21. On day one post-hatch, granulocytes had disappeared and capsule was at its greatest thickness. At seven weeks posthatch, plasma cells and monocytes were observed in the splenic cords and sinusoids respectively. Two germinal centres appeared in the gland at 13 weeks post-hatch. Although the lymphoid organs of birds are based on the same structural patterns as have been mentioned by several hors, it has been conclusively shown that at least there are minor but important differences that exist within these individual glands amongst the different species of birds. The study has shown that both the thymus and bursa undergo involution at different times in different avian species and in the guinea fowl they do not invariably disappear altogether. The spleen and Harderian gland did not even begin to regress as late as 32 weeks of life but continued to grow. This study however, provides an opening for further investigation beyond 32 weeks of life to observe the final outcome of these lymphoid organs in the guinea fowl. There would also be the need for thymectomy or splenectomy to erve its effect on the sizes and cell contents of the other lymphoid tissues so as to give a better picture of the interaction between primary and secondary lymphoid organs.
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    ANTHELMINTIC EFFICACY OF CRUDE METHANOL EXTRACT OF DONNETIA TRIPETALA G. BAKER FRUITS WITH ITS VARIOUS CHEMICAL FRACTIONS IN MICE EXPERIMENTALLY INFECTED WITH HELIGMOSOMOIDES BAKERI
    (2015-11) SHUAIBU, KHADIJAH
    The effects of in vitro and in vivo anthelmintic activity of crude methanol extract (CME), hexane extract (HE), ethylacetate extract (EAE), butanol extract (BT) and aqueous methanol extract (AME) of Donnettia tripetala fruits on mice experimentally infected with Heligmosomoides bakeri were evaluated. The fruits were washed dried, pounded and the powder was extracted with methanol in a soxhlet apparatus. Fifty grams of the crude methanol extract (CME) was partitioned with hexane (HE), ethylacetate (EAE) and butanol (BT). The extracts were subjected to preliminary phytochemical screening and acute toxicity test (LD50). The in vitro anthelmintic studies involved the evaluation of egg hatch inhibition and larvicidal activities of the extracts. Different concentrations (0.07, 0.15, 0.3, 0.6, 1.25 and 2.5 mg/ml) of the CME, HE, EAE, BT and AME were prepared in distilled water. Two hundred microlitres of each concentration were incubated with the eggs and larvae of H. bakeri contained in 0.2 ml solution in 96 well microtiter plates and incubated at room temperature for 48 and 24 hours, respectively. Distilled water (0.2ml) and albendazole (0.07, 0.15, 0.3, 0.6, 1.25 and 2.5 mg/ml) were used as untreated and treated controls, respectively. In the in vivo trial, 85 mice infected with H. bakeri were randomly allocated into 17 groups of 5 mice each. Groups 1-3, 4-6, 7-9, 10-12, 13-15 were treated with CME, HE, EAE, BT and AME, respectively at doses of 200, 400 and 800 mg/kg. Groups 16 and 17 were treated with albendazole (10 mg/kg) once and distilled water (5 ml/kg) respectively, and served as treated and untreated controls. All treatments were administered orally on the 16th, 17th and 18th day post infection. Anthelmintic activity was assessed by comparing the faecal egg count reduction rates and the worms recovered from the treated groups to the non- treated group. The extraction with methanol yielded 0.07 % of the powder. Furthermore, fifty grams of the crude methanol extract yielded 24.87 g (49.7%) of HE, 2.11 g (4.2%) of EAE, 3.69 g (7.4%) of BT and 16.80 g (3.4%) of AME on partitioning. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of carbohydrate, cardiac glycosides, saponins, steroids, triterpenes, flavonoids, tannins and alkaloids in the CME, EAE, BT and AME. The HE however did not contain saponins. Acute toxicity study of the CME in mice showed that the extract was relatively non-toxic and safe at a dose of ≤ 5000 mg/kg. At 2.5 mg/ml the CME, EAE, AME and BT inhibited the hatching of H. bakeri eggs by 93.5, 92.4, 87.9 and 52.4%, respectively. Similarly, CME, EAE, AME and BT caused death of the larve of H. bakeri by 100, 92.6, 85.1 and 77.8%, respectively. However, HE did not produce significant in-vitro anthelmintic activity when compared with distilled water (untreated control). In the in vivo anthelmintic trial, the CME, HE, AME, BT and EAE at a dose of 800 mg/kg reduce fecal egg count by 100, 99, 98, 80 and 65%. Similarly, CME, EAE, AME, BT and HE caused deparasitization of 93, 93, 88, 88 and 82%, respectively, in mice infected with H. bakeri which is significant (p<0.05). The study concluded that D. tripetala fruit is safe and non toxic when administered acutely and posses anthelmintic activity
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    ANTIBODIES AND SERUM PROTEIN LEVELS IN LOCAL AND EXOTIC ADULT CHICKENS SUFFERING FROM AVIAN INFLUENZA
    (2007-09) WAKAWA, Aliyu Mohammed
    The objective of this study was to determine the levels of antibodies and serum proteins in local and exotic adult chickens suffering from avian Influenza (AI). A total of 1, 000 blood samples were collected from 500 clinically sick local and exotic adult chickens confirmed to be suffering from AI and 500 apparently healthy local and exotic adult chickens in some parts of Jigawa, Kaduna and Katsina States of Nigeria. The samples were analysed for antibodies to AI type A H5 and Newcastle disease (ND) antigens, serum total protein (TP), albumin and globulin levels, using haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test, Biuret technique, and Modified Batholomew and Delaney technique, respectively. Seventy nine (31.6%) of the clinically sick local, 49 (19.6%) of the clinically sick exotic, and 6 (2.4%) of the apparently healthy local chickens tested positive for AI type A H5 antibodies with mean antibody titres of 5.6 ± 0.1 log2, 7.1 ± 0.1 log2 and 5.8 ± 0.1 log2 respectively. Thirteen (5.2%) clinically sick local chickens, 23 (9.2%) clinically sick exotic chickens, 97 (38.8%) apparently healthy local chickens, and 213 (85.2%) apparently healthy exotic chickens tested positive for ND antibodies with mean antibody titres of 3.9 ± 0.3 log2 ,4.4 ± 0.2 log2, 4.8 ± 0.1 log2 and 5.5 ± 0.1 log2 respectively. The values of TP obtained for clinically sick local and exotic chickens (3.6 ± 0.0 and 3.0 ± 0.0 g/dl respectively) were significantly (p<0.001) lower than those obtained for apparently healthy local and exotic chickens (6.5 ± 0.1 and 7.8 ± 0.1 g/dl respectively). The values of albumin levels obtained for clinically sick local and exotic chickens (2.1 ± 0.0 and 1.9 ± 0.0 g/dl respectively) were significantly (p<0.001) lower than those obtained for apparently healthy local and exotic chickens (3.3 ± 0.0 and 4.1 ± 0.1 g/dl respectively). A significant decrease (p<0.001) in globulin levels was observed in clinically sick local and exotic chickens (1.5 ± 0.0 and 1.1 ± 0.0 g/dl respectively) below the values established for apparently healthy local and exotic chickens (3.2 ± 0.1 and 3.7 ± 0.1 g/dl respectively). This study showed an overall prevalence rate of 13.4% for AI and 34.5% for ND in the area of study. The presence of antibodies to AI H5 antigen further confirmed the disease in the clinically sick chickens sampled. Local chickens might likely be source of AI virus and play significant roles in its transmission and spread to susceptible backyard and commercial poultry. Avian influenza resulted in a decrease in the concentration of serum TP, albumin and globulin in the affected local and exotic adult chickens. It was strongly recommended that a national active AI surveillance be conducted to define the true status of the disease in Nigeria. If vaccination against AI is to be carried out, there is the need to place birds on high level of protein supplements in order to augment their serum protein levels which are expected to drop post-vaccination.
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    ASSESSMENT OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESIDUES, USE, PUBLIC HEALTH AWARENESS AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN FISH FARMS IN KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA
    (2014-03) ALIYU, LADAN ADAMU
    This study was undertaken for the assessment of antimicrobial drug use and occurrence of residues in farmed fish in Kaduna State. A total of 300 fish samples from 30 farms in the three senatorial districts of Kaduna State were screened for the presence of antimicrobial drug residues using Premi(R)Test. A cross sectional descriptive study was conducted using convenience sampling technique for fish collection. Ten fish each weighing 500g to 1kg were collected from earthen ponds, concrete ponds and plastic tanks in fish farms from the three senatorial districts. One hundred questionnaires were administered to fish farmers. Out of the 300 fish samples screened, an overall prevalence of 73.70% of antimicrobial drug residues was obtained, while prevalence's of 63%, 74% and 84% were obtained from Kaduna North, Central and South senatorial districts respectively. There was a significant association (χ2 = 11.38, df = 2, p < 0.05) between senatorial district and detection of antibiotic residue in the fish. From the questionnaire responses the use of antimicrobial drugs in fish ponds was common (91.86%); with tetracycline (63.41%) being the most frequently used antimicrobial agent. Self prescription and administration of drugs by farmers (67.86%) were more in number than those who consult veterinarians for prescription and drug administration. Level of awareness, dangers associated with consumption of antimicrobial drug residues in fish were very low. Furthermore, most fish farmers did not observe antimicrobial withdrawal periods. This study has established a high prevalence of antimicrobial drug residues in farmed fish in the study area. Awareness on the dangers and public health implications of antimicrobial drug residues in fish in Kaduna is low. Therefore, use of antimicrobial drug in aquaculture should be regulated, farmers should be encouraged to use immunostimulators or probiotics for disease control and prevention, in order to safeguard the general populace from the hazards associated with drug residues in fish.
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    ASSESSMENT OF DONKEYS (Equus asinus) EXPERIMENTALLY INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma brucei (Federe isolate) AND TREATED WITH HOMIDIUM CHLORIDE AND ISOMETAMIDIUM CHLORIDE
    (2016-10) OPARAH, NNEKA QUEEN
    This study investigated the course of T. brucei (Federe isolate) experimental infection in donkeys and the therapeutic efficacy of two trypanocides against the infection. Twenty-eight apparently healthy donkeys (Equus asinus) of equal sexes, aged between 8 – 9 months, were purchased from a livestock market in Maigatari town, Jigawa State and used for the study. They were housed in a tick and fly-proof pen, and allowed to acclimatize for 4 weeks during which they were screened for presence of diseases, and were fed Imperata cylindrica grass, Andropogon gyanus hay, cereal bran and cotton seed cake with clean water and salt lick provided ad libitum. Thereafter, they were assigned at random to 4 groups; A (Infected Homidium chloride-treated, n=8), B (Infected Isometamidium chloride-treated, n=8), C (Infected untreated/positive control, n=6) and D (uninfected untreated/negative control, n=6). Groups A and B donkeys were further divided into subgroups A1 A2 and B1 B2, of 4 donkeys each, to represent treatments at acute (day 12) and chronic (day 24) phases of infection, respectively. Twenty-two donkeys (groups A, B and C) were infected through jugular venipuncture with 2 ml inoculum containing 2×106 T. brucei (Federe isolate) and evaluated for clinical signs, pathology and response to treatment. Parasitaemia was evaluated using the wet mount, haematocrit and mouse inoculation techniques, and blood was sampled every 3 days for parasitology and haematology while sera for biochemistry were harvested once weekly. Treatment with the trypanocides was at dose of 1 mg/kg 2.5% Homidium chloride (Novidium®) and 0.5 mg/kg 1% Isometamidium chloride (Sécuridium®) on days 12 and 24 post-infection. Donkeys were evaluated pre-infection, post-infection and post-treatment for changes in physiological parameters, body weight, haemato-biochemical parameters and pathology. Carcasses and internal organs were examined for gross lesions. Tissue sections of the organs were prepared and examined ix for changes in architecture. Organ impression, cerebrospinal fluid and brain squash smears were prepared and examined for tissue invasion by the parasite. Trypanosoma brucei produced clinical trypanosomosis in the donkeys with pre-patent and incubation periods of 2 – 3 and 2 – 6 days respectively. Two of the infected donkeys did not develop trypanosomosis. From day 4 post-infection, the infected donkeys manifested weakness, reduced feed intake, intermittent fever, tachycardia, increased respiratory rates, intermittent penile erection, dehydration, rough hair coat, lacrimation, weight loss, pale mucous membranes with recumbency. Respiratory rales on auscultation was predominant at the chronic stage. Parasitaemia recorded was 4.27 ± 0.45 parasites per field at day 3 post-infection and increased significantly (p<0.0001) to 26.20 ± 1.35ppf by day 12 pi. Weight loss was significant at the chronic stage. Post-infection, haematology revealed anaemia, with a significant (p<0.005) reduction in mean red cell count (5.87±0.40 to 3.35±0.30), haemoglobin concentration (11.88±0.61 to 8.50±0.61) and packed cell volume (38.13±3.36 to 24.38±1.88). There was significant (p<0.0001) increase in mean corpuscular volume (53.07±1.65 to 69.92±1.73) and a significant (p<0.002) decrease in mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (36.05±0.35 to 32.47±0.66) indicating a macrocytic hypochromic anaemia. Mean white blood cell count reduced significantly post-infection (11.62±0.90 to 7.55±0.71) while differentials revealed significant (p<0.05) reduction in neutrophils (44.79±1.31 to 31.23±1.06) and eosinophils (4.63±0.70 to 0.39±0.10), and a significant (p<0.05) increase in lymphocytes (47.29±1.50 to 67.20±1.09). Serum chemistry post-infection revealed minor changes in albumin, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase and blood urea nitrogen, suggesting the infection caused mild pathology. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels increased post-infection and post-treatment. Creatinine levels significantly (p<0.01) increased (69.00±2.86 to 83.67±3.27) post-infection in group C donkeys. x There was significant (p<0.05) decrease in the total protein (67.28±2.93 to 60.43±0.69) and glucose levels (100.70±3.17 to 46.00±7.84) post-infection. Serum electrolyte alterations observed were hypocalcaemia post infection and hypercalcaemia post treatment, while sodium, chloride, potassium, phosphorus and bicarbonate levels showed non-significant (p>0.05) variations. Twenty-four hours following treatment of donkeys in groups A and B with Novidium® and Sécuridium® respectively, parasites were not detected. Relapse of infection with low parasitaemia levels was detected from day 27 post treatment in subgroups A1, A2, and B1. Repeated treatment using Novidium® at 1 mg/kg and double the initial 0.5 mg/kg dose of the Sécuridium® (1 mg/kg), eliminated the parasites. Gross lesions observed in the untreated donkeys were hydropericardium (600 ml), atrophy of fat, mucoid exudates in the bronchi, congested lungs and spleen, and splenic haemorrhages. Histopathological findings were mononuclear perivascular cuffing in the brain, congestion of the lungs, kidney congestion with glomerulonephritis and splenic congestion with haemosiderosis. Impression smears revealed no parasites on microscopy. Tissue sections of treated donkeys showed less pathology. This study confirms susceptibility of donkeys to T. brucei (Federe) infection. Treatment with the two trypanocides at recommended concentrations and doses was effective in eliminating the parasites, with blood parameters returning to pre-infection values. However, the drugs produced some biochemical alterations in the treated donkeys. Isometamidium chloride was observed to have a better therapeutic effect than Homidium chloride, and is suggested as first drug of choice in the treatment of T. brucei infection in donkeys.
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    ASSESSMENT OF DONKEYS (Equus asinus) EXPERIMENTALLY INFECTED WITH Trypanosoma brucei (Federe isolate) AND TREATED WITH HOMIDIUM CHLORIDE AND ISOMETAMIDIUM CHLORIDE
    (2016-10) OPARAH, NNEKA QUEEN
    This study investigated the course of T. brucei (Federe isolate) experimental infection in donkeys and the therapeutic efficacy of two trypanocides against the infection. Twenty-eight apparently healthy donkeys (Equus asinus) of equal sexes, aged between 8 – 9 months, were purchased from a livestock market in Maigatari town, Jigawa State and used for the study. They were housed in a tick and fly-proof pen, and allowed to acclimatize for 4 weeks during which they were screened for presence of diseases, and were fed Imperata cylindrica grass, Andropogon gyanus hay, cereal bran and cotton seed cake with clean water and salt lick provided ad libitum. Thereafter, they were assigned at random to 4 groups; A (Infected Homidium chloride-treated, n=8), B (Infected Isometamidium chloride-treated, n=8), C (Infected untreated/positive control, n=6) and D (uninfected untreated/negative control, n=6). Groups A and B donkeys were further divided into subgroups A1 A2 and B1 B2, of 4 donkeys each, to represent treatments at acute (day 12) and chronic (day 24) phases of infection, respectively. Twenty-two donkeys (groups A, B and C) were infected through jugular venipuncture with 2 ml inoculum containing 2×106 T. brucei (Federe isolate) and evaluated for clinical signs, pathology and response to treatment. Parasitaemia was evaluated using the wet mount, haematocrit and mouse inoculation techniques, and blood was sampled every 3 days for parasitology and haematology while sera for biochemistry were harvested once weekly. Treatment with the trypanocides was at dose of 1 mg/kg 2.5% Homidium chloride (Novidium®) and 0.5 mg/kg 1% Isometamidium chloride (Sécuridium®) on days 12 and 24 post-infection. Donkeys were evaluated pre-infection, post-infection and post-treatment for changes in physiological parameters, body weight, haemato-biochemical parameters and pathology. Carcasses and internal organs were examined for gross lesions. Tissue sections of the organs were prepared and examined for changes in architecture. Organ impression, cerebrospinal fluid and brain squash smears were prepared and examined for tissue invasion by the parasite. Trypanosoma brucei produced clinical trypanosomosis in the donkeys with pre-patent and incubation periods of 2 – 3 and 2 – 6 days respectively. Two of the infected donkeys did not develop trypanosomosis. From day 4 post-infection, the infected donkeys manifested weakness, reduced feed intake, intermittent fever, tachycardia, increased respiratory rates, intermittent penile erection, dehydration, rough hair coat, lacrimation, weight loss, pale mucous membranes with recumbency. Respiratory rales on auscultation was predominant at the chronic stage. Parasitaemia recorded was 4.27 ± 0.45 parasites per field at day 3 post-infection and increased significantly (p<0.0001) to 26.20 ± 1.35ppf by day 12 pi. Weight loss was significant at the chronic stage. Post-infection, haematology revealed anaemia, with a significant (p<0.005) reduction in mean red cell count (5.87±0.40 to 3.35±0.30), haemoglobin concentration (11.88±0.61 to 8.50±0.61) and packed cell volume (38.13±3.36 to 24.38±1.88). There was significant (p<0.0001) increase in mean corpuscular volume (53.07±1.65 to 69.92±1.73) and a significant (p<0.002) decrease in mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (36.05±0.35 to 32.47±0.66) indicating a macrocytic hypochromic anaemia. Mean white blood cell count reduced significantly post-infection (11.62±0.90 to 7.55±0.71) while differentials revealed significant (p<0.05) reduction in neutrophils (44.79±1.31 to 31.23±1.06) and eosinophils (4.63±0.70 to 0.39±0.10), and a significant (p<0.05) increase in lymphocytes (47.29±1.50 to 67.20±1.09). Serum chemistry post-infection revealed minor changes in albumin, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase and blood urea nitrogen, suggesting the infection caused mild pathology. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels increased post-infection and post-treatment. Creatinine levels significantly (p<0.01) increased (69.00±2.86 to 83.67±3.27) post-infection in group C donkeys. There was significant (p<0.05) decrease in the total protein (67.28±2.93 to 60.43±0.69) and glucose levels (100.70±3.17 to 46.00±7.84) post-infection. Serum electrolyte alterations observed were hypocalcaemia post infection and hypercalcaemia post treatment, while sodium, chloride, potassium, phosphorus and bicarbonate levels showed non-significant (p>0.05) variations. Twenty-four hours following treatment of donkeys in groups A and B with Novidium® and Sécuridium® respectively, parasites were not detected. Relapse of infection with low parasitaemia levels was detected from day 27 post treatment in subgroups A1, A2, and B1. Repeated treatment using Novidium® at 1 mg/kg and double the initial 0.5 mg/kg dose of the Sécuridium® (1 mg/kg), eliminated the parasites. Gross lesions observed in the untreated donkeys were hydropericardium (600 ml), atrophy of fat, mucoid exudates in the bronchi, congested lungs and spleen, and splenic haemorrhages. Histopathological findings were mononuclear perivascular cuffing in the brain, congestion of the lungs, kidney congestion with glomerulonephritis and splenic congestion with haemosiderosis. Impression smears revealed no parasites on microscopy. Tissue sections of treated donkeys showed less pathology. This study confirms susceptibility of donkeys to T. brucei (Federe) infection. Treatment with the two trypanocides at recommended concentrations and doses was effective in eliminating the parasites, with blood parameters returning to pre-infection values. However, the drugs produced some biochemical alterations in the treated donkeys. Isometamidium chloride was observed to have a better therapeutic effect than Homidium chloride, and is suggested as first drug of choice in the treatment of T. brucei infection in donkeys.
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    ASSESSMENT OF GROWTH AND REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS IN DIALLEL CROSSING OF THREE RABBIT BREEDS
    (2010-08) KABIR, Mohammed
    A study was conducted to assess the growth and reproductive performance of three breeds of rabbit in a full diallel crossing scheme. Data generated from 162 purebred kits born in 36 litters and 408 crossbred kits from 72 litters were used. The purebred kits comprised 38 Chinchilla (CHC), 54 New Zealand White (NZW) and 70 California White (CAW) kits. The crossbred groups comprised 217 „main cross‟ kits and 191 „reciprocal cross‟ kits. Birth and weaning traits considered included gestation length, litter size at birth and weaning, litter weight at birth and weaning, preweaning mortality and weaning sex ratio while growth traits included weekly body weight (BW) and body linear measurements: ear length (EL), body length (BL), nose to shoulder (NTS), shoulder to tail-drop (STT), heart girth (HG), tail length (TL), length of front leg (LFL) and length of back leg (LBL). Results of litter size at birth for CHC, NZW and CAW breeds were 6.05, 6.89 and 7.33, respectively. The litter sizes at 21 and 35 days of age were 4.61, 5.5 and 5.94, and 4.58, 5.39 and 5.86 for CHC, NZW and CAW breeds, respectively. Results for Litter weight for CHC, NZW and CAW breeds were 163.68g, 149.25g and 155.94g at birth, 952.13g, 1041.02g and 1067.29g at 21 days of age and 1596.93g, 1764.05g and 1838.40g at 35 days of age, respectively. The respective birth weights for individual kits for CHC, NZW and CAW breeds were 27.05g, 21.66g and 21.27g while the values at 21 and 35 days of age were 206.53g, 189.27g and 179.68g, and 348.67g, 327.28g and 313.72g for CHC, NZW and CAW breeds, respectively. The above results revealed that the CHC breed produced kits that were individually heavier at birth and at weaning than the kits from NZW and CAW breeds. The relatively high performing ability of the CHC breed was confirmed by the results of the general combining ability (GCA) on growth traits which indicated that CHC breed showed significantly (P<0.05) high superiority over NZW and CAW breeds for 8 traits (BW, EL, BL, TL, NTS, STT, LFL and LBL). Nevertheless, heritability estimates for litter size from birth to weaning were high (0.49–0.64) in the CHC breed, while the estimates for litter weight were moderate to high (0.34–0.52). In the NZW and CAW breeds moderate to high estimates of heritability for litter size and litter weight (0.33–0.46 and 0.28–0.41, and 0.31–0.42 and 0.32–0.41, respectively) were observed from birth to weaning. In the crosses however, the results of specific combining ability (SCA) indicated that the CHC x NZW cross was the best combination regarding the use of sire and dam breed to exploit non-additive genetic variance in 6 of the 9 examined body measurement traits. It was observed also that the CHC breed performed generally well in crosses with either NZW or CAW. Cross performance was however low for NZW x CAW cross, implying poor manifestation of non-additive gene action. Moderate to high coefficients of genetic correlation in the CHC breed for growth traits (0.43±0.03–0.88±0.24; 0.27±0.04– 0.85±0.15; 0.20±0.02–0.83±0.14) at 6, 8 and 10 weeks of age respectively, were observed. Positive and significantly high association for HG, BL, NTS, STT and BW indicated that absolute height and frame size were complementary. Beside, selection for increased measurement for any trait and in any of the breeds studied herein, would mean positive and significant influence on the others and therefore, increased skeletal stature with concormitant increase in other absolute body measurements. It was concluded that rabbit farmers in the Guinea Savannah zone of Nigeria would operate more profitably if they keep Chinchilla does with optimal feeding levels especially after weaning so as to attain faster growth and market weight. The progeny from CHC x NZW combination proved the best among the crossbreds, probably due to high exploitation of heterosis from both parents
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    ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH PROBLEMS IN INDIGENOUS CHICKEN FLOCKS OWNED BY LOCAL WOMEN IN ZARIA, KADUNA STATE
    (2000-01) WASH, YOP CHOJI GYANG
    A survey was carried out to assess the health status of indigenous chickens kept by rural women around Zaria. Women in households in 10 villages around Zaria were interviewed to obtain demographic data, information on chicken ownership, health status of the chicken and utilization of veterinary services by the women. Of the 504 women interviewed, 65.7% owned local chicken. There was a statistically significant variation (P< 0.05) in the distribution of indigenous chickens among villages, with Zango having 98% women owning chickens and Giwa 19.6%. There were statistically significant relationships (P< 0.05) between ethnicity, marital status or religion and ownership status. Determinants of ownership of local fowls are trading (79.6%), non attendance of secondary school(78.5%); long experience of the owners in local poultry management (58.7%) and ownership of other domestic livestock such as goats (94.4%). Level of significance (P< 0.05) between owners and non owners of local fowls were obtained for married women, and educational status (those not educated were more likely to have chicken). Only 17 of the 504 women were solely house wives, others were involved in some kind of occupation (trading, Islamic teaching, etc.). Of the 226 women involved in trading 79.6% owned local chicken. Majority (94.4%) of the women that owned local chicken also owned goats.
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    ASSESSMENT OF LOCAL POULTRY HEALTH, BIOSECURITY RISKS, FARMERS’ MEDIA USE, ACCESS AND UNDERSTANDING TO AVIAN INFLUENZA COMMUNICATION MATERIALS
    (2010-03) ASSAM, Assam
    The study assessed local poultry health through testing for avian influenza virus, antibodies to avian influenza, Newcastle and Gumboro disease; internal and external parasites. It also assessed local poultry farmers’ biosecurity risks by appraising farmers’ knowledge, beliefs and practices on avian influenza; their media use, access and understanding of avian influenza communication materials. Seventy-two pooled cloacal and oro-pharyngeal swabs and 264 blood samples were collected from local poultry and 200 questionnaires administered to local poultry farmers. Swabs were analysed by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; sera by agar gel immunodiffusion and haemagglutination inhibition tests. Avian influenza antigen prevalence was 1.4%. Mean antibody titre and prevalence of Newcastle disease were 2.74 ± 0.28 log2 and 48.5 % respectively. About 68.7 % of chickens had antibody titre <4 log2 with 42.9 % having titre ≥ 7 log2. Newcastle disease prevalence rates in ducks and turkeys were 47.8% and 66 % respectively. All local poultry were negative for avian influenza but 55.3 % had antibodies to Gumboro disease. Lice and mites were identified in all villages and endoparasites were prevalent in 72.7 % of sampled villages. Mean packed cell volume of chickens, ducks and turkeys were 29.09 ± 0.46, 35 ± 1.68, 36.75 ± 2.00 % respectively. Knowledge on transmission and prevention of avian influenza was high but low on disease recognition. Farmers believe avian influenza cannot be prevented and engage in risky behaviours but practice only biosecurity measures that will not incur cost. Radio and television were appropriate media for dissemination of agricultural information to farmers but were ineffective at educating farmers with Islamic education. Television was better at articulating avian influenza risk perception. Billboards and posters had high viewership and were easily understood by farmers. Distribution of avian Influenza educational materials among farmers was poor. Influenza A virus is circulating among local ducks in Dan Gaiya village. Local poultry are exposed to continuous challenge from fowl pox, Newcastle and Gumboro diseases. Local poultry are highly susceptible to Newcastle disease which is likely to be mistaken for highly pathogenic avian influenza. Surveillance team should be sent to Dan Gaiya and Yar Kasuwa villages. Avian influenza control in local poultry should incorporate Newcastle and Gumboro diseases control. State radio and television should increase broadcast of avian influenza programs. Muslim youths should be engaged for avian influenza advocacy within the Muslim communities. For effective community participation on avian influenza control, a community dialogue system should be established.
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    ASSESSMENT OF POST- CASTRATION PAIN IN RABBITS TREATED WITH THE ETHANOL EXTRACT OF CHENOPODIUM AMBROSIOIDES LINN
    (2018-10) OLADIMEJI,lateefa opeyemi
    This study was carried out to assess post-castration pain and distress using blood glucose concentration; oxidative stress parameters, algometer, and rabbit grimace scale in rabbits treated with the ethanol extract of Chenopodium ambrosioides (C. ambrosioides). Fifteen (15) sexually matured and clinically healthy bucks with the mean weight of about 2.5 ± 0.7 kg were used for the study. The animals were allowed to acclimatize to the management conditions for two weeks. The research was carried out in two phases: Phase 1 comprised three groups, A, B and C that contained 3 rabbits each, and were treated orally with normal saline, meloxicam tablet (0.1 mg/kg), and C. ambrosioides extract (500 mg/kg), respectively after castration. The phase 2 contained groups D and E with 3 animals each, and were treated topically with Fastum gel® (Ketoprofen 2.5 %) and C. ambrosioides (applied liberally) extract after castration. Two milliliter (2 ml) of blood sample was collected from each buck to assay for Malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration, Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), and Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities, 1 hr, 2 hr, and 3 hr post treatment, following the evaluation of blood glucose concentration. Post-castration pain assessment was done using the Rabbit Grimace scale at 1 hr post treatment for twenty minutes followed by post-castration pain evaluation using algometer around the surgical wound. The pain evaluation using algometer was also repeated on the day one of surgery at 1hr post treatment. Fifteen minutes after the treatments on day zero of surgery, the blood glucose concentration (mg/dL) of the normal saline treatment group (267.67 ± 18.77 mg/dL) was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) than all other treatment groups. At two hours after treatment, the plasma MDA concentration (μmol/L) of the normal saline treatment group (44696 ± 19071 μmol/L) was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) than all other treatment groups. The plasma SOD activity of oral C. ambrosioides (22 ± 5.7 mg/mL) treatment was higher than the oral meloxicam (14 ± 6 mg/mL) and normal saline (18 ± 8.4 mg/mL) treatments, while that of topical C. ambrosioides (4.8 ± 1.1 mg/mL) treatment group was higher than that of topical Ketoprofen (2.2 ± 1 mg/mL) treatment, though the difference was not significant. The force required in eliciting pain after 1 hour in topical C. ambrosioides (16.03 ± 2.52N) treatment group was significantly higher than the topical Ketoprofen (10.27 ± 0.17 N) treatment group. While the oral C. ambrosioides (13.47 ± 1.32N) treatment was higher than the oral meloxicam (12.9 ± 1.42 N) and normal saline (9.87 ± 0.35 N) treatment groups though, the differences were not significant. The overall grimace pain score for the oral meloxicam (0.51 ± 0-0.9), oral C. ambrosioides (0.71 ± 0.1-1.4), topical C. ambrosioides (0.55 ± 0.3-1.2) extracts treatment groups was not different from that of the pre-surgical grimace pain score (0.36 ± 0-1), while that of the topical Ketoprofen score (0.8 ± 0.4-1.7) and oral C. ambrosioides (0.71 ± 0.1-1.4) extracts were not different from the normal saline (0.92 ± 0.5-1.6) treatment group. Chenopodium ambrosioides had better antioxidative effects when administered orally, while the topical application of C. ambrosioides extracts produced faster analgesic effects compared to the oral administration at the dosage used. This study has demonstrated that C. ambrosioides could be used to reduce post-castration pain and distress in rabbits as evaluated using oxidative stress parameters, algometer and rabbit grimace scale.
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    AVIAN INFLUENZA (H5N2) ANTIBODIES IN LOCAL CHICKENS AND AWARENESS LEVEL OF HIGHLY PATHOGENIC AVIAN INFLUENZA IN KADUNA STATE
    (2009-01) DUROSINLORUN, ABDULKAREEM
    Six hundred and five sera samples were collected from apparently healthy local chickens in thirty three villages in twelve Local Government Areas of Kaduna State. Six of the Local Government Areas had outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza that was reported and confirmed between 2006 and 2007. The remaining six Local Government Areas were randomly selected from those Local Government Areas that did not report outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza during the same period. Hemagglutination inhibition test was conducted to detect antibodies to low pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N2) while structured questionnaires were administered to one hundred and seventy two (172) farmers to determine their knowledge, level of awareness and readiness to disclose outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza. The overall prevalence rate of antibodies to low pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N2) was 18.1%. A higher prevalence rate of (27.3%) was recorded in Local Government Areas that did not report outbreak of HPAI compared to the prevalence rate of 7.5% in the Local Government Areas that reported outbreak of HPAI. The result of this study shows that low pathogenic influenza virus (H5N2) is circulating among local chicken population in Kaduna state. There was association between the presence of ducks and detection of antibodies to low pathogenic H5N2 virus (χ2 =24.257 df =1). Most of the farmers (84.9%) were aware of HPAI. Majority (87.2%) also said they would report outbreak of HPAI but the knowledge of the disease was low (19.8%) among farmers. Educational status (χ2 = 16.635 df = 5) and occupation (χ2 = 9.984 df = 4) of farmers had association with the knowledge of HPAI. Majority (78.5%) of farmers heard of HPAI through the radio. This may explain why the knowledge of the disease is low. It is recommended that surveillance to establish the presence or absence of LPAI (H5N2) and other LPAI should be enhanced and sustained. More efforts should also be made to improve the knowledge and recognition of HPAI by local poultry farmers. This will go a long way in aiding the Federal Government’s control program of the disease.
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    AVIAN INFLUENZA ANTIBODIES IN CHICKENS, DOGS, PIGS AND BIOSECURITY PRACTICES IN KADUNA, NIGERIA
    (2012-08) SHEHU, David
    Avian influenza is zoonotic and dog being a close associate to humans, constitutes a source of human exposure. This study assessed avian influenza awareness and knowledge amongst dog owners and biosecurity practices in live bird markets, pig and dog slaughter areas in Kaduna using structured questionnaires and biosecurity checklists. The prevalence of H5 subtype antibodies in chickens, dogs and pigs was also determined by haemagglutination inhibition test. Sera from 75 chickens, 45 dogs and 104 pigs were tested for H5 subtype antibodies. Dog owners (93.1%) kept poultry with 64.6% keeping local poultry. Though 57.7% prevented direct contact of dogs and poultry, 42.3% allowed contact. About 65.4% of dog owners kept pigs with 84.5% managing pigs semi-intensively; 0.8% sought veterinary attention when pigs were sick and 24.1% permitted contact of pigs with poultry. About 27.7% of dog owners did nothing when dogs were sick. Ninety-six per cent were aware of avian influenza and 85.4% first heard about it from the television. Only 2.3% were aware of the susceptibility of dogs to avian influenza, but 0.8% knew that dogs can transmit the virus to humans, and 3.1% knew avian influenza infection in dogs could result in death. Dog owners (95.4%) handled dead poultry with bare hands, while 32.3% do not wash hands with soap and water after handling dead or live poultry. The H5 subtype antibodies prevalence in dogs was 2.2% with a mean titre of 9.0 ± 0.0 log2, while the prevalence in chicken and mean titre were 6.7% and 8.5 ± 0.04 log2, respectively. All pig sera tested were negative for H5 subtype antibodies. The chicken H5 subtype antibody prevalence in Central Market and Railway Station live bird markets (LBMs) were 4.3% and 13%, respectively. Awareness of avian influenza of dog owners was high but their knowledge was poor. The H5 subtype antibodies were present in dogs and chickens in Kaduna. Biosecurity practices of Central Market LBM were adequate, but poor in Barnawa, Kakuri and Railway Station LBMs, dog and pig slaughter areas. Targeted surveillance of avian influenza in dogs and pigs should be incorporated in the national avian influenza surveillance program.